Chapter One: The Batembuzi

Echoes of Power: The Batembuzi and Bacwezi – Shaping the Heart of Kitara

Let us journey back to the very dawn of the Kitara kingdom, to the legends that whisper of its beginnings and the forces that shaped its destiny. Our traditions speak of a time when the connection between the heavens and the earth was palpable, a time that gave birth to the very concept of rulership.

The Genesis: The Batembuzi – Those Who Came First

The stories, whether recounted in the Bikunya and Fisher version or others, often begin with Ruhanga, the Creator, the source of all things. In the beginning, when the sky and earth were close, Ruhanga descended with his brother Nkya. Nkya had four sons, the eldest named Kantu (meaning “little thing”), while the younger three shared the name Kana (“little child”). This shared name often led to squabbles, as each believed every gift was meant for them.

Seeking a solution, Nkya approached Ruhanga, who promised to bestow individual names upon them if they visited him on the opposite hill. At this time, Ruhanga dwelled both in the heavens and on earth, having carved out valleys as boundaries between the territories of humankind.

The brothers embarked on their journey and arrived at their uncle’s dwelling. They were instructed to wait. Meanwhile, Ruhanga entered his house and slaughtered a cow, removing its hide and head. He then prepared millet and sweet potatoes. Carrying the cooked food, an axe, a panga (knife), and a head pad, he placed them in the middle of the road.

Upon his return, Ruhanga presented the boys with milking gourds and sent them on their way. As they walked, they encountered the items he had secretly placed there. The eldest son immediately seized the basket of food and began to eat. His brothers protested, claiming the food was not rightfully his. Ignoring them, the eldest took the potatoes, millet, panga, and pad home. The second boy chose a belt strap, envisioning its use for tethering cows during milking. The youngest carried home the cow’s head.

Back at their uncle’s house, they presented their chosen items and explained their decisions. Observing their choices, Ruhanga devised another test. That evening, he instructed them to sit with legs outstretched, each holding a full wooden milk pot on their lap. They were forbidden to drink the milk, just as they had been forbidden to eat his millet.

At midnight, the youngest boy began to doze and spilled half his milk. Fearful, he pleaded with his brothers to share their milk so his pot would remain full. They obliged. But at the first cock’s crow, the eldest boy knocked over his entire pot of milk. When he asked his brothers to pour from theirs into his empty pot, they refused, pointing out the vast amount needed to refill it.

At dawn, Ruhanga arrived and asked each boy to uncover their milk pot. The first was empty. Moving to the second, he saw a slight decrease in the milk and questioned the boy. The boy replied, “No, oh God, I did not drink it, but I filled my little brother’s pot, for he had spilled some of his.”

Ruhanga then called his brother and declared that names had been found for his three children. He cursed the eldest, naming him Kairu (little servant), for eating food on the public road with unclean hands and proving untrustworthy in the test. Henceforth, Kairu would be the servant of humankind, tasked with gathering firewood, building houses, and being subservient in all things to his master. The second son he named Kahuma (little herdsman), destined to tend the cattle of the one to whom he had shown kindness by sharing his milk. To the youngest, Ruhanga proclaimed, “Your name is Kakama Twale (Ruler, Little King). You shall reign over all men, for you took the cow’s head from the road; all shall fear and worship you and your word.”

Thus, Kakama became the first King of Bunyoro-Kitara. Historians like Nyakatura suggest a different lineage, stating that these three figures were sons of Kintu, the first political leader of Bunyoro-Kitara who arrived from a distant land. He posits that Kakama Twale ruled only after Kintu.

Kakama had children, Ira and Kazooba, who later ascended the throne. Ira died without an heir and was succeeded by his brother Kazooba. Kazooba’s reign was marked by significant population growth, and he was so beloved by his people that he was deified after his death.

Kazooba was the father of Nyamuhanga, known as Rugaba by the Banyankole and Mwanga by the Baganda. Nyamuhanga ruled for a long time but struggled to have children. After consulting a medicine man, he was advised to marry Nyabagabe, the daughter of one of his servants named Igoro. Their union produced a son named Nkya (meaning “Lucky”).

Nkya I succeeded his father. His reign was also lengthy, and like his father, he was initially believed to be barren. He too consulted a traditional healer and eventually had a son, whom he also named Nkya, recognizing the similar circumstances of their births. This son became Nkya II.

Nkya II was succeeded by Baba, and then Nseka by Kudidi. Kudidi reigned for a long and prosperous life, dying as a very old man. His successor was Ntonzi, remembered for his harsh rule and suppression of rebellions through the sword. Ntonzi was followed by Nyakahongerwa, and then Mukonko, his son, who also ruled for an extended period.

Rutahinduka, Mukonko’s son, ascended the throne in his old age. Ngonzaki, traditionally believed to be the father of Isaza Rugamba Nabato, earned his nickname (“What do I want?” or “My House is Full; I Need Nothing”) due to his immense wealth and indifference to gifts, never even bothering to look at them.

Rutahinduka was succeeded by Isaza Waraga Rugambanabato, who became king as a young man. He belonged to the Bagabu clan, like his ancestors. Some accounts place Isaza’s capital near present-day Bukumi station in Bugangaizi. Isaza was a renowned hunter who, defying the advice of the elders, banished them from his court, fostering a strong connection with the youth, earning him the nickname “Rugambanabato” (He Who Talks With The Young).

A fateful hunting trip led to Isaza’s near demise. Persuaded by his young companions, he sewed himself into the untanned hide of a zebra. Initially, the tight skin felt pleasurable, but as the day grew hotter and the skin dried, it caused him immense discomfort. His young companions were at a loss for a solution.

Desperate, they sent for two old men who had not yet left the kingdom, pleading for help. Initially, the banished elders refused, stating, “What help can we offer when we know nothing?” However, their hearts were moved after Isaza’s young hunting companions recounted the story to the King’s aunt, Kogere, the Saza Chief of Busongora, and his sister, Nyangoma, the Saza Chief of Buruli. They advised that the suffering King be immersed in a pond of water to loosen the constricting skin.

After this ordeal, Isaza Rugambanato, overjoyed to be alive, restored all the elders to positions of prominence in the kingdom. They became his trusted counselors and palace favorites. While he did not harm his former young companions, Isaza severed his close ties with them, transferring his affection and trust to the wisdom of the old. From that day forward, he decreed that the young must always revere the old and consistently sought their counsel, ruling his kingdom with newfound ease.

Isaza is credited with being the first king to divide Bunyoro into Sazas (counties). Some accounts suggest that the very word “Amasaza” was derived from his name. He appointed chiefs to govern these regions, many of whose names have survived in oral tradition.

In his appointments, Isaza showed gratitude and respect to the old men who had saved him, granting them rule over many Sazas. He remained their overarching authority and unifier, able to command and summon them at any time, assuming the title Nyakikooto – the greatest of all Saza chiefs and the lord of all.

The first Saza Chiefs appointed by Isaza (the old men) and their respective Sazas were:

• Nyamenge: Kitara (Kyaka Saza)
• Ntege ya Koya: Muhwahwa (Buganda) – Koya was too old and delegated to his son Ntege.
• Machumulinda: Nkore (District)
• Ntembe: Busoga (District)
• Kabara: Bugangaizi (Saza)
• Nyakirembeka: Mwenge (Saza)
• Kogere (aunt): Busongora
• Nyangoma (sister): Buruli (Saza)
• Nyamurwana: Bugahya (Saza)
• Nsinga: Bugoma (Southern Bugahya Saza)
• Ichwamango: Bugungu (Northern Bujenje Saza)
• Kaparo: Chope (Kibanda Saza)
• Kalega: Bulega (The West Bank of L. Albert)
• Mukwiri: Bwera (Buddu)
• Nyakadogi: Busindi (Buruli Saza)
• Nyakaranda: Bunyara

While these names persist in tradition, the exact nature of control during the Batembuzi period remains somewhat unclear. What is significant is the appointment of women, Kogere and Nyangoma, as Saza Chiefs, indicating the early recognition of women’s political roles in the Bunyoro system, possibly as early as the 13th century. Isaza himself resided in Kitara County but regularly inspected other regions, particularly for their cattle.

During Isaza’s peaceful reign, tradition recounts an intriguing encounter with the ruler of Okuzimu – the Underworld, Nyamiyonga (meaning “black smut”), who sought to establish friendship. Nyamiyonga sent a messenger to Isaza bearing six riddles, cryptic clues from which Isaza was to deduce Nyamiyonga’s request. The riddles were:

• The measure of time (Enterabwire)
• The rope that arrests water (Omuguha Oguboha Amaizi)
• What makes Isaza turn to look behind (Ekihindura Isaza Okurora Enyuma)
• One who knows no duty or responsibility (Entamanya Mulimo)
• One who knows no suffering or cares and comes drunk with alcohol
• The door that shuts out poverty

Neither Isaza nor the assembly of elders he summoned could solve these perplexing riddles. However, Kogere, the wise Saza Chief of Busongora and Isaza’s aunt, brought a clever maid named Kazana, who promised to unravel the clues. Kazana revealed the answers to one of Isaza’s wives:

• The measure of time was the cock (its crowing marked the hours).
• The rope that arrests water was dough made of millet flour mixed in boiling water (used to seal pots).
• What makes Isaza turn around was the calf (its cry as it was brought in caught his attention).
• The one with no sense of duty was the dog (presented with a smoking pipe, it showed no interest).
• The one with no suffering or cares and seemingly drunk was a baby (placed on Isaza’s lap, it scratched his face and wet his clothes, oblivious to consequence).
• The door that shuts out poverty was Nyamiyonga’s request for a blood pact (Omukago) through the exchange of coffee berries smeared with their respective blood – one for Isaza to swallow, the other for Nyamiyonga.

Despite solving the riddles, Isaza hesitated to enter into a blood pact with a foreign ruler he had never seen. His advisor, Kyarunda, cautioned against it. However, custom dictated that an offer of friendship should not be refused outright. Isaza, therefore, delegated the ceremony to his servant Bukuku, who swallowed Nyamiyonga’s blood-tainted seed in his stead.

Nyamiyonga’s messenger returned with news of Isaza’s indirect acceptance. Enraged by what he perceived as trickery and insult, Nyamiyonga plotted his revenge.

Learning of Isaza’s deep affection for cattle and women, Nyamiyonga summoned his daughters and chose one named Nyamata (meaning “milk”) to send to Isaza’s palace with a deceptive plan. As they approached, Nyamata’s escorts left her to proceed alone. She arrived at Isaza’s palace and was met by Bukuku at the visitor’s house, Mucwa. Bukuku, acting in the King’s place, introduced her to Isaza, praising her unparalleled beauty.

Isaza’s younger sister, Runyunyuzi (Star), also affirmed Nyamata’s extraordinary beauty to her brother. Captivated, Isaza made Nyamata his wife. While living in Isaza’s household, Nyamata observed his deep love for his cattle, especially his reddish-brown cow Bihogo Bya Gaju and his bull Ruhogo. Six months pregnant, Nyamata announced her departure, claiming she was going to establish maternal relations for her child and visit her parents. However, near the border of Nyamiyonga’s kingdom, she vanished from her escorts.

Nyamata bore a son named Isimbwa. She informed her father that Isaza’s greatest love was for his cattle. Nyamiyonga then devised a plan, sending his two finest cows, Ruhogo the bull and Kahogo the cow, to Isaza’s palace under the cover of night, instructing his herdsmen to have them join Isaza’s herd. Isaza was overjoyed at the sight of these magnificent animals and immediately took possession of them. However, the two cows, as planned, eloped with Isaza’s Bihogo Bya Gaju and fled towards Nyamiyonga’s kingdom. Determined to retrieve his beloved cattle, Isaza instructed Bukuku to remain safely in the palace while he pursued them.

Reaching Nyamiyonga’s palace, Isaza was met by Nyamata and his son Isimbwa, who had been named by his uncle Rwogamata (One who bathes in milk). Isaza was given back his cows, Bihogo and Kahogo, along with his wife Nyamata and two hundred heads of cattle, with the understanding that he would return home to Kitara. But Isaza never found his way back. He remained in Nyamiyonga’s underworld kingdom for the rest of his life, and the Bagabu clan never regained their political dominance in Kitara. The kingdom’s leadership had fallen into the hands of Bukuku, a former servant of the palace.

The location of this unnamed underworld kingdom remains unspecified in tradition, but historians suggest this encounter represents the interactions between the Bagabu-Batembuzi and a rising power to the south, which ultimately led to Isaza’s downfall. Oliver Ronald, drawing on Nkore traditions, identifies the underworld as Bwera, south of the River Katonga, from where the Bahuma pastoralists attempted to extend their influence northward into Isaza’s kingdom, situated between the Katonga and Nkusi-Kafu rivers.

Meanwhile, back in Kitara, Bukuku, the former stand-in for the King, declared himself the new ruler of Bunyoro-Kitara. He belonged to the Baranzi clan and was a Mwiru (commoner). This ascension to kingship ignited a power struggle with the members of the Bagabu clan, to which the former King Isaza belonged.

The Bagabu, seeking to reclaim their lost dominance after Isaza’s disappearance, found a figurehead in Rubunda Omugabu, Isaza’s son. Rubunda named his son Nkoni ya Rubunda, literally meaning “He Beat a Mwiru (Bukuku) with a stick for becoming a King (Omukama) in his father’s palace.” This act symbolized their discontent and anger at being ruled by a Mwiru. Realizing that regaining power was unlikely, the Bagabu eventually withdrew from Kitara, settling in Busongora, where their descendants remain to this day.

Further rebellions ensued. All the Saza chiefs appointed by Isaza Rugambanabato revolted against Bukuku, refusing to be ruled by a Mwiru. These uprisings left Bukuku in control of only a small territory encompassing Kikwenuzi, Kisengwe, and Kajarazi, locations that modern informants have not precisely identified. No accounts suggest that Bukuku ever regained control over the lost areas. However, despite his political challenges, Bukuku’s reign remains significant as he was the only Mwiru remembered to have achieved the kingship in Bunyoro-Kitara, representing the rise of the Bairu agriculturalists.

Bukuku had a daughter named Nyinamwiru. Having no male heir, he built her a separate enclosure, isolating her from others, and assigned her a maid named Mugizi. One day, Isimbwa, son of Isaza and Nyamata, returned from the underworld, where he had been since infancy. He had already fathered a son named Kyomya.

During his stay at Bukuku’s court, Isimbwa secretly courted Nyinamwiru through her maid Mugizi. He remained in Nyinamwiru’s enclosure for three months without Bukuku’s knowledge. Six months after Isimbwa’s departure, Nyinamwiru gave birth to a son, Ndahura, much to Bukuku’s consternation. Bukuku ordered the child to be killed by drowning in the River Nguse Muzizi.

However, legend states that Ndahura wore necklaces that became entangled in a tree, preventing him from drowning. Others say his umbilical cord caught in a bush. As he clung to the riverbank, a passing porter named Rubumbi rescued the child. Knowing the child belonged to Nyinamwiru, he secretly informed her. Nyinamwiru arranged for two milk cows to feed her son. The child became known as Ndahura Karubumbi, after the porter who saved his life. Bukuku remained convinced the child was dead.

Ndahura grew into a strong and spirited boy, raised as Rub

Chapter Two: The Era of the Bacwezi (circa 1350 – 1500 AD)

Following the Batembuzi period, a distinctive group known as the Bacwezi emerged during the reign of Isaza Nyakikooto. Their origins remain a subject of debate. Some traditions suggest a link to light-skinned individuals, with theories ranging from a possible Portuguese connection (even proposing the name ‘Bacwezi’ derived from Portuguese) to them being an offshoot of Caucasoid peoples, perhaps Egyptians who migrated down the Nile into Bunyoro and Buganda during or after the Batembuzi.

Oliver Roland offers a different perspective, suggesting the Bacwezi were likely among the final waves of pastoral Bahima who entered Uganda from the northeast. He argues against a Galla origin, proposing a closer affinity to Sudanic peoples from southwestern Ethiopia, while noting that their cultural distinctiveness wasn’t solely Sudanic.

However, Bunyoro traditions often link the Bacwezi to the preceding Batembuzi. Some accounts even propose that the Batembuzi were an initial wave or related group to the Bacwezi, suggesting they shared notable similarities, including what were perceived as superhuman attributes.

Bacwezi Lineage

• Isimbwa (not considered a true Mucwezi as he was born in what tradition refers to as “the underworld”).

The rise of the Bacwezi involved more than just the arrival of foreign Bahima who then dominated Kitara. It also marked the ascent of these pastoral groups into positions of leadership. Ndahura, the first Cwezi King, notably rose from humble beginnings within Kitara society. While tradition identifies him as Bukuku’s grandson, it also states he was raised away from the court by a porter’s family of the Babopi clan. His rule didn’t introduce an entirely new political structure but rather built upon the existing framework established by Isaza, such as the retention of the Saza (county) system.

Ndahura’s reign initiated a period of political centralization, adapting existing institutions to the evolving social and economic landscape characterized by a more widespread pastoral lifestyle and a more aristocratic society. The symbols of Bacwezi kingship, including royal drums, beaded crowns topped with tall copper cones, copper spears for ritual purposes, and distinct reed-fenced royal enclosures, are all associated with Ndahura’s rule. Notably, nine-day new moon ceremonies were held monthly within the Cwezi King’s royal enclosure. G. Casati’s 1886 account indicates that this ritual, later adopted by the Babiito (successors to the Bacwezi), involved cattle sacrifices. Ceremonial herding and the drinking of milk were integral to the ruler’s daily practices.

The Bacwezi are credited with introducing various innovations, including barkcloth manufacture, coffee cultivation, iron working, extensive earthworks, and fortifications. Archaeological findings at significant cultural sites like Bigo Bya Mugenyi, Mubende, Kibengo, Kagogo, and Kasonko reveal that the Bacwezi utilized distinct pottery styles, including bowls, spherical jars, shallow basins, and footed dishes. During a temporary absence of Ndahura from the kingdom, his half-brother Mulindwa served as a caretaker ruler. Ndahura was eventually succeeded by his son Wamara, the last Cwezi king.

Omukama Ndahura Omucwezi

Ndahura, whose lineage traced back to the union of Isimbwa and Nyinamwiru, was also known by names reflecting his life experiences and perceived attributes: Kyarubumbi (son of a porter), Rwesakaara Myambi (he who thatches himself with arrows), and Rumoma Mahanga (the attacker of all nations). Tradition recounts his upbringing by a Mwiru family, porters of the Babopi clan.

Ndahura became the first Cwezi King, succeeding his maternal grandfather, Bukuku Omuranzi. His initial capital was at Kisengwe but was later moved to Mubende hill, offering a commanding view of his kingdom. Upon hearing of his son Ndahura’s ascension, Isimbwa returned to Kitara, traversing various regions before arriving at Nyinamwiru’s palace in Kisengwe. Their reunion was celebrated with great joy. Subsequently, Nyinamwiru and Isimbwa journeyed to Mubende, announcing their arrival to Ndahura with the resounding beats of the royal Bacwezi drum, ‘Rusama’, which played throughout the night. Following the celebrations, Ndahura appointed Isimbwa chief of Kisozi, where Isimbwa settled and married women from the Basaigi, Bacwa, Basito, Basingo, Basambu, and Bacwezi clans. Nyinamwiru was bestowed the title of Queen Mother, granting her significant respect, a separate residence, land, and cattle. She ruled Nkoni. Rubumbi, the porter who raised Ndahura, was made a Saza Chief, and Ndahura also rewarded other members of the Babopi clan, bolstering his support within the kingdom.

Despite the support from his mother’s Baranzi clan, it appears that other members of the Baranzi fled the political landscape, migrating south to Busongora, while some ventured southeastward to Ukerewe. While G. Hartwig estimates their arrival in Ukerewe around the 16th century, Kitara traditions suggest their migration began earlier.

Meanwhile, Isimbwa, now a chief, returned to Bukidi to bring his family. His son Kyomya had fathered four children with Nyatwor, a Mukidi woman of the Bakwonga clan: Nyarwa (firstborn), the twins Isingoma Rukidi Mpuga and Kato Kimera, and Kiiza. Upon their arrival in Bunyoro-Kitara, Kyomya had more children: Kagoro (born of a maid Kacubya), Mugarura (from Kogere of the Bacwezi clan), Ibona (from a Cwezi woman called Waraga Mugenyi by Nyangoma of the Basingo clan), and Byangarubwa (begotten by Rugomya of the Basambu clan).

At Ndahura’s accession, the surrounding areas were reportedly in rebellion against Bukuku. Ndahura initiated a series of campaigns and forged alliances, moving northward to bring his relatives and their cattle into the kingdom. These individuals became Ndahura’s military support base for the kingdom’s expansion. His military campaigns extended the kingdom’s boundaries significantly. His first campaign targeted Nsinga, a chief of Bugoma to the west who had previously rebelled against Bukuku and was rumored to have used witchcraft against Ndahura. Tradition states that Ndahura replaced Nsinga’s red feather crown with one of grass before executing him by casting him off an escarpment into Lake Mwitanzige (Lake Albert). Given Bugoma’s location as a forested area bordering the Kibiro salt mines, economic motivations, such as securing the salt supply, may have also driven this campaign.

The subjugation of Bugoma was followed by an impressive series of campaigns led by Ndahura north to Buruli and south to Karagwe, Nkore, Bukuma, and Rwanda. During a campaign against the Madi people, Ndahura’s son, Kiro Muhimba, captured black cattle and an eight-legged stool. Upon his return via the western bank of Lake Mwitanzige (Lake Albert), through Toro and Busongora, Kiro reached Busenya and heard his father’s drum. He played his own drum, which Ndahura recognized. Kiro ordered his men to clear the Kakiromba forest to reach his father, presenting him with the eight-legged stool before they returned to Mubende via Nkoni. Other notable campaigns extended eastward to Buganda, where Ntege was overthrown and Kyomya was made paramount chief, and further to Busoga and around the shores of Lake Victoria to the Sukuma country.

Tradition suggests that Kitara’s claims of Ndahura’s campaigns reaching into western Kenya are not unfounded. In central Nyanza (Kenya), the Wanga community’s kingship institutions are linked in their traditions to a pastoral ‘Muhima’ who arrived from western Uganda and gained dominance over the local agricultural populations. This figure brought copper bracelets and sacred spears, key features associated with the Bacwezi of Kitara, and these bracelets became integral to legitimizing Wanga rulers. Through these extensive campaigns, Ndahura established the Bacwezi as the dominant power in the interlacustrine region.

King Wamara

Ndahura is said to have become restless and launched an expedition against Kyaihangiro (Tanganyika), ruled by Bwirebutakya. In a fierce battle, Bwirebutakya is credited with casting darkness over Ndahura’s army, leading to Ndahura’s capture. A few escaping soldiers reported this news back to the Banyoro. In response, the people proposed that Kyomya take the throne. Kyomya refused and instead set out to find his brother, leaving Ndahura’s half-brother, Mulindwa, as caretaker ruler.

After reconnaissance in Kyaihangiro, Kyomya located Ndahura’s captives and facilitated his escape from Bwirebutakya’s palace. While the people welcomed Ndahura’s return, he declined to reclaim the throne, citing his period of servitude in exile. His eldest son, Wamara, became the new King.

Ndahura moved away from Kitara, traveling through various regions before settling near Lake Busongora, where he dug a large well for his cattle called Kikorongo. His mother, Nyinamwiru, followed him, and together they settled in Irangara, where they lived out their lives before, according to tradition, vanishing from the earth.

Following his coronation, Wamara relocated the capital from Mubende to Bwera. Mubende was entrusted to Ndahura’s senior wife, Nyakahuma (known as Nakayima by the Baganda), whose position apparently became hereditary until its destruction by British colonialists in 1907. Wamara’s ascension led to palace tensions. Nyangoma, the mother of Mugenyi (Isimbwa’s son), was displeased that her son had not become king and blamed Mulindwa, the ‘caretaker’. However, Mulindwa was reportedly in love with Nyangoma, who orchestrated a plot to kill him for failing to secure the throne for her son. She prepared a pot of boiling water where Mulindwa would sit. When he arrived, he fell into it and nearly died, were it not for his servants alerting other Bacwezi.

Kagoro, Kyomya’s son, rescued Mulindwa and retaliated with violence. When he attempted to kill Nyangoma’s maid, Gwinekyakyo, she pleaded for her life and revealed Nyangoma’s plot. Kagoro killed Nyangoma and her two sisters, Nyanteza and Nyangoro. He vowed to exterminate the Basingo clan, to which they belonged, but his father Kyomya intervened, as the Basingo were the lineage of Mugenyi. This counsel prevailed.

Wamara established a new government for the expanding empire, appointing chiefs to various counties and provinces. Kagoro received Kahange county; Mugarura – Kisoli (Mubende); Katukwe took Karokarungi (Ankole); Mulindwa was given Buyaga County; Mugenyi received Bwogero and Mahogora and built Bigo bya Mugenyi; Ibona ruled Bugusura, Bwera, and Rwanda; Bugungu was given to Kahuka; the Sese Islands to Mugasa; Buruli to Rubago; Muhwahwa to Kaganda Nsiri; and Kyomya was transferred from Buganda to Bugahya.

Tradition identifies Bigo bya Mugenyi as the last Cwezi capital, a site marked by impressive earthworks. Recent archaeological investigations tend to support this, confirming Bigo’s significance as the final center of the Bacwezi dynasty, with evidence suggesting substantial reconstruction likely occurred during the early Bito period.

Before their departure from Kitara, Wamara entrusted the royal drums Nyalebe and Kajumba to Mubimba of the Abasita clan and the royal crowns and other regalia to Mugungu, requesting they be handed over to the future rulers. Aware that the incoming Babito rulers were unfamiliar with Kitara customs, Wamara left behind two queens – Iremera of the Banyagi clan and Bunono of the Baitira clan – to instruct them in the affairs of the Bunyoro state.

The End of the Bacwezi Rule

Similar to their origins, the reasons behind the collapse of the Bacwezi rule in Kitara remain largely uncertain. Some historians attribute their decline to the migration of Luo-speaking groups into Kitara around the 15th-16th centuries, suggesting these agricultural people arrived through conquest, forcing the Bacwezi to flee. Others emphasize internal factors, such as Ndahura’s extensive campaigns that may have overstretched the kingdom’s capacity to manage, as well as his capture by Bwirebutakya, which was followed by a series of misfortunes.

During campaigns in Nkore, Ndahura narrowly escaped an assassination attempt, foreshadowing future dangers to the Cwezi rulers and their empire. While the would-be assassin was apprehended and killed, the incident served as a warning.

Further instability arose when Mulindwa, left as protector of the throne, lacked the authority to prevent ambitious chiefs from asserting their independence. The prolonged absence of Ndahura fueled this rebellious spirit, further compounded by challenges from Mugenyi, who vied for the throne. These rebellions persisted into Wamara’s reign, with many Sazas breaking away, including Buyaga, which had become independent by the time the Bito arrived. Tradition also recounts a great wind brought by the Bayaga clan that destroyed Wamara’s palace, leading to their successful rebellion. Kitagwenda, formerly a Saza, also seceded and remained independent until the 19th century.

Fragmentation intensified during the conflict between Mulindwa (Baasita clan) and Mugenyi (Basingo clan), orchestrated by Nyangoma. This conflict created divisions among palace officials, weakening the central authority. Further discord arose when the Basingo refused to pay tribute to Wamara, specifically withholding a white-spotted cow considered sacred to their clan. Mulindwa, sent to collect the cow, was killed, prompting Kagoro’s vengeful retaliation against the Basingo. The defeated and ostracized Basingo adopted the spotted cow as their totem, the very cause of the conflict.

While the Basingo were blamed for the kingdom’s troubles, this internal strife made the Bacwezi vulnerable and militarily challengeable, leading to a loss of power and prestige. Simultaneously, raids on Cwezi cattle herds by a man named Misango, likely organized by Bahuma groups from Rwanda (Balisa and Basambu clans with close ties to the Bacwezi), further weakened their position.

According to tradition, the Bacwezi ultimately left Kitara due to a series of bad omens, including blood found in the milk of Wamara’s cows and the death of Wamara’s blood brother, Kantu, which deeply affected Mugenyi. Wamara summoned diviners to interpret these events. One account describes the failed divination using a calf lacking intestines in their natural place, interpreted as the end of the Bacwezi rule. The intestines found in the legs and head signified their departure and continued influence through spirit mediums (Mbandwa cults). Another version recounts diviners seeing blood spurting in many directions from a sacrificed calf, indicating the Bacwezi would leave Kitara in various groups.

Tradition states that the diviners, Nyakoka and Karongo, returned to Bukidi, leaving the Bacwezi in a quandary about the future of the kingdom. Kyomya suggested summoning his four sons to manage the realm. Kanyabuguma was sent to Bukidi but found Kyomya’s sons already prepared to come to Kitara, having been forewarned by Nyakoka.

Upon reaching Bukidi, Nyakoka encountered Kyomya’s sons, who had been born to a Mukidi woman named Nyatwor (from ‘Tolo’ at the foot of Mt. Guruguru, of the Bakwonga clan). They became known as the Ababiito because Nyatwor met their father under a ‘bito’ tree, where they were resting when Nyakoka arrived. They adopted the bushbuck as their totem, their mother’s symbol, as their father had left when they were young. This became the official totem of the Babiito, the descendants of Rukidi Mpuga, the first Bito King.

Following Mulindwa’s death, Buyaga became the hereditary territory of Mihingo and his successors, the Kyankuswere, who were forbidden from seeing a Mubito King because they had buried a Mucwezi. Like the Babiito, they inherited some Bacwezi artifacts, including golden bangles (‘ebikomo’) said to play a role in selecting their leaders.

Realizing the Babiito were aware of their impending arrival, official Bunyoro tradition states that the Bacwezi departed from Kitara, passing through Kisozi to Kahanga. Mulindwa initially refused to stay behind in Buyaga but eventually did, where he reportedly died after a blood pact with Mihingo.

Tradition also mentions a group of Bacwezi meeting their brother Mubyasi in Bugoma, leaving him behind as the founder of the Ababyasi clan.

While popular tradition suggests the Bacwezi drowned in Lake Mwitanzige, another interpretation views their “disappearance” as a consequence of the communication and mobility limitations of the time, suggesting they migrated further south into regions like Ankole, Rwanda, Mboga, and Burundi.

Bacwezi as The Indigenous Settlers, Great Warriors and Wealth Creators in Africa