The Spiritual Tapestry: Unraveling Foundational Beliefs in African Traditional Religions

African Traditional Religions (ATRs) are underpinned by a rich and complex spiritual worldview, woven together by four foundational beliefs that are crucial for any meaningful theological interpretation and engagement. Understanding these core tenets – (1) the belief in mystical power(s); (2) the belief in spirit beings; (3) the belief in divinities; and (4) the belief in the Supreme Being – is the essential starting point for anyone seeking a genuine and effective Christian approach to these indigenous faiths.

1. The Pervasive Presence of Mystical Power(s)

How does this dominant belief in impersonal, mystical forces permeate and shape the entirety of traditional African life? The influence is foundational and all-encompassing.

The belief in an impersonal, often mysterious power is a dominant and pervasive current in traditional African religious thought. Creation in its entirety, nature in all its forms, and indeed all things and objects are seen as imbued with this impersonal potency. This is what Edwin Smith eloquently termed mysterium tremendum, a power that has been given various names across cultures and scholarly interpretations: mana, life force, vital force, life essence, or dynamism.

Within African beliefs, the origin of this impersonal power is not always readily discernible, often attributed to the actions of higher, “mysterious” forces that either generate or deposit such power into things or beings. The strength, efficacy, and permanence of this “inhabited” power vary significantly from one object to another. Certain objects are perceived as inherently more power-laden or “imputed” than others, possessing a greater natural endowment of these potent energies.

The manifestation and utilization of these impersonal powers are closely linked to the practices of traditional healers, diviners, and seers. They skillfully employ natural objects, plants, and animals in the creation of medicines, the practice of magic, and the crafting of charms and amulets. Some specialists believe they can extract these inherent mysterious powers from objects for specific purposes. Furthermore, mystical powers are understood to be transmissible through physical objects acting as conduits or even through purely spiritual means, capable of being directed towards specific targets for benevolent or malevolent intentions. This power can even be contagious, transferred through contact with objects that carry or mediate it.

Crucially, these impersonal powers are not inherently good or evil; their moral valence depends entirely on the intentions and actions of those who wield them. The life of an individual within a traditional African context, holding this belief, is often perceived as being at the mercy of those who can skillfully manipulate these mystical forces for good or for ill. This fundamental belief profoundly shapes traditional religious practices and behaviors.

Therefore, any meaningful Christian engagement must acknowledge and deeply study the theological underpinnings of this traditional African belief in mystical forces. The religious and social roles and functions of this belief require thorough understanding, and the application of biblical truths and the Christian Gospel must address it at its foundational roots, not through mere opposition, but through insightful engagement with questions such as:

1. What are the lived experiences and feelings of traditional Africans regarding the pervasive presence of these mystical forces? The Bible and the Gospel of Christ must speak directly to this core religious value and its profound influence on human existence in traditional Africa. A relevant biblical and Christian theology needs to be formulated to address this traditional theology of impersonal powers.
2. What is the inherent nature of this belief in mystical powers, and what is its total impact on the holistic being of individuals in traditional Africa? How can the Bible and the Gospel of Christ be applied to both the nature of this belief and its far-reaching influence?
3. What are the accompanying religious practices and behaviors that support and reinforce both this belief and the feelings it generates? How can we study and apply the Bible and the Gospel of Christ to the diverse array of practices, attitudes, rituals, rites, and ceremonies that traditional Africa has developed from this foundational belief?

Our theological approach must transcend simply matching biblical verses with specific traditional beliefs. It requires delving into the theological, philosophical, moral, and ethical bases and foundations of these beliefs. Religious beliefs, feelings, practices, and behaviors have deep roots. The traditional conception of mystical power is no exception.

When Christian concepts such as the power of the blood of Christ, the power of Christ, the power of the Holy Spirit, the power of God, and the power of prayer in Jesus’ name are introduced, how are these powers theologically understood within the framework of traditional African thought? It is the traditional theology of power and forces that the Bible must address. When the belief in the potency of mystical powers is simply condemned as demonic, individuals within traditional African contexts often feel a sense of offense because, from their perspective, there is no tangible proof of this demonization. These powers are experienced as real and efficacious. A mere citation of a Bible verse, devoid of deeper engagement, is often insufficient to dissuade or convince them otherwise.

Our religious beliefs and practices are structured within the framework of our traditional religious worldview. Understanding the theological foundation of the belief in mystical powers, along with its accompanying feelings, practices, and behaviors, is paramount for any Christian theologian seeking meaningful dialogue.

2. The Inhabited World: Belief in Spirit Beings

What is the influence and impact of this dominant religious belief in spirit beings upon the whole of traditional African life? The Bible and Christian theology must directly address this pervasive influence. Unfortunately, many Christian churches often resort to misinterpreting the Bible to attack these deeply held beliefs.

Traditional African concepts of reality and destiny are deeply intertwined with the spirit world. The activities and actions of spirit beings are believed to govern a wide spectrum of social and spiritual phenomena. This spirit world is often categorized into two broad realms: (1) non-human spirits and (2) the spirits of the dead (ancestors). Non-human spirits are typically regarded in a hierarchical order based on their nature and significance, determined by their power and their role within the ontological order of the spirit world.

At the apex of this hierarchy often resides the Creator, followed by various deities, then the spirits of ancestors, and a multitude of other non-human spirits, encompassing both benevolent or harmless entities and malevolent spirits. Humanity is positioned between this vast array of spiritual beings and the natural world.

What Constitutes the Spirit World?

As summarized by Kato (1975):

1. The entire world is perceived as teeming with spirits.
2. The abodes of these spirits are numerous and varied, including specific trees (silk cotton, baobab, sycamore), burial grounds, and other designated places.
3. Spirits are broadly classified into benevolent and malevolent categories.
4. A firm belief in reincarnation is often prevalent.
5. Practices of exorcism or addressing spirit possession are common.
6. Belief in an afterlife, with potential for future reward and punishment, exists in many traditions.
7. Evil spirits are often associated with a concept akin to Satan.
8. Spirit possession is a recognized phenomenon.

Mbiti (1969) emphasizes that the African spirit world is densely populated with spirit beings, spirits, and the “living-dead” – the spirits of ancestors. This spirit world often forms the most pervasive layer of the African worldview, encompassing spirits, ancestors, and the Supreme Being (Ikenga-Metuh, 1987).

A close relationship exists between these spirit beings and the mystical or impersonal powers described earlier. The supernatural realm is often seen as the operational sphere for mystical power, magic, witchcraft, sorcery, and other such phenomena. In a sense, the spirit world is a battleground of spirits and powers wielding their mystical energies to influence the course of human life, capable of bestowing blessings or inflicting curses.

The belief that mastering and controlling the supernatural realm could lead to a more harmonious world has spurred the development of various specialists – traditional healers, rainmakers, mediums, diviners, sorcerers, magicians, and witches – who attempt to navigate and influence this realm. Superstitions, totems, taboos, and rituals often emerge from these beliefs.

For safety and protection in a world perceived as dominated by spirit beings and their powers, individuals rely on a spiritual compass for guidance and practical efforts for control and security. This often involves religious rites, reverence for ancestors, symbolic totems, regulative taboos, rituals, superstitions, customs, and the guidance of spiritual specialists. In essence, navigating life successfully often requires engaging with this spirit world through various means, highlighting the relevance of prophetic ministry within this context.

As previously noted, traditional African thought often posits that spirits dwell in or inhabit specific natural features like trees, rocks, mountains, caves, rivers, lakes, and forests, as well as animals, human beings, the skies, the ground, and even carved or molded objects, charms, and amulets.

Spirit beings are commonly divided into two primary categories: (1) the spirits of deceased elders (ancestors) and (2) non-human spirit beings. Ancestors are often seen as being close to the living, serving as their custodians and protectors. All spirit beings are believed to possess certain powers, which they can apply for the benefit or detriment of humans, often depending on the respect and honor they receive. Given the perceived capricious yet sometimes benevolent nature of spirit beings, wisdom and tact are considered essential in human interactions with them. They can be easily angered, provoked, or harmed by human actions, necessitating careful engagement. In dealing with both impersonal powers and spirit beings, individuals often seek the guidance of human specialists (believed to be inspired by the Creator) who have gained experience and access to these mysteries, aiding them in leading successful lives and achieving well-being. These spirit beings are not always seen as inherently dominant; they can, in some traditions, be “manipulated” to serve human needs, or conversely, humans can be subject to their influence.

Similar to the belief in mystical powers, this belief in spirit beings has a profound theological basis. Christianity must recognize and study this theological foundation rather than simply dismissing it as demonic. The religious and social roles and functions of this belief warrant thorough understanding and respectful engagement.

3. The Multifaceted Divine: Belief in Many Divinities

What is the influence and impact of the dominant religious belief in divinities upon the whole of traditional African life? The Bible and Christian theology must address this significant influence.

In some parts of Africa, traditional religions feature an elaborate pantheon of divinities. However, this is not a universal observation, particularly in Southern Africa and certain regions of West Africa, where some ethnic groups appear to lack divinities or designated shrines for them or even the Supreme Being. Conversely, the Yoruba people of Nigeria are renowned for their extensive pantheon, numbering in the hundreds.

Over the past three decades, African scholars have significantly reshaped perspectives and even the definition of African divinities (Idowu, 1962; Mbiti, 1975). The prevailing understanding now is that these African “divinities” were and are not typically worshipped as “gods” in themselves but rather as “intermediaries” or “mediators.” The argument posits that “Africans do not worship their divinities nor their ancestors, but God,” with sacrifices, offerings, and prayers ultimately directed towards the Supreme Being, not the divinities or ancestors as final recipients.

African divinities are often numerous, each associated with a specific domain of influence and control. Some originated as mythological figures in African legends and primordial histories and cosmologies, while others were deified tribal heroes or heroines. Divinities often oversee various aspects of life, society, and the community, such as the sea or waters, rain, thunder, fertility, health or sickness, planting or harvest, and specific tribal, clan, or family concerns. These divinities can manifest in the form of mountains, rivers, forests, the earth, the sun, the moon, the stars, and even ancestors. The sheer plurality of divinities, with their varying powers, influence, hierarchy, and territoriality, even within a single ethnic group, reveals much about African religions, worship, beliefs, and practices. This inherent pluralism often fosters religious accommodation, tolerance, assimilation, and adaptation within traditional religious thought. The traditional African understanding and interpretation of Christianity are deeply rooted in these fundamental beliefs regarding divinities. This belief, like the others, has a theological basis – the acceptance of a multiplicity of divine beings.

With the introduction of Christianity or other religions like Islam, this belief system can often incorporate the worship of one God without necessarily denying the existence of the divinities. The possibility exists that the Christian God introduced by missionaries is perceived as the same God already worshipped, but now approached directly rather than solely through the divinities. The theological basis of this traditional belief readily allows for such integration without causing a significant theological crisis. The plurality of divinities inherently permits a plurality of beliefs, practices, feelings, and behaviors within a single religious framework, creating space for the accommodation, adaptation, and even “domestication” of new divine figures into the existing religious landscape. Diverse views and practices can be tolerated without necessarily causing confusion, all made possible by the theological foundation of the belief in multiple divinities and their hierarchical structure.

4. The Unifying Force: Belief in a Supreme Being (God)

What is the influence and impact of this dominant religious belief in one Supreme Being upon the whole of traditional African life?

The extensive work of African scholars over the past three decades has firmly established the fact that Africans possess a concept of a universal God and Creator (Idowu, 1962; Mbiti, 1975). A broad consensus exists that missionaries often misinterpreted traditional Africans, wrongly assuming they did not actively acknowledge or worship this Supreme Being.

Idowu famously described Yoruba religion as “diffused” monotheism, suggesting that while the Yoruba originally held a monotheistic belief, the gradual proliferation of divinities as intermediaries over centuries led to a perceived reduction in the direct worship of the Supreme Being. However, even with this concept of “diffused” monotheism and similar notions found across the African continent, the overwhelming evidence indicates a widespread awareness and belief in a Supreme Being within African spirituality.

In their efforts to promote Christianity, missionaries often sought to diminish the authority of African divinities and ancestors. However, according to African traditional religion, these divinities have historically played an active role in the everyday religious lives of traditional Africans, serving as conduits through whom the Supreme God received sacrifices, offerings, and prayers. In many traditional African societies, the Supreme Being was actively involved in the daily religious practices of the people through these intermediaries. Across much of Africa, the Supreme Being is invoked in prayers, songs, and significant religious ceremonies.

While defining divinities or ancestors as mere “intermediaries” might seem weak in the context of broader religious definitions, traditional Africans believe in a Supreme Being who stands “above” the lesser divinities and the entire hierarchy of beings. This belief exerts a profound theological influence. This Supreme God, who transcends the lesser divine figures, is often perceived as deeply and intimately involved or concerned with the human world, highly glorified, frequently mentioned, and consistently remembered.

In understanding the nature and structure of African traditional religious thought, the belief in impersonal powers is undeniably expansive and pervasive, as is the belief in spirit beings. While the belief in divinities might not be as universally prevalent across all ethnic groups, the belief in a Supreme Being is widely held throughout Africa. This belief often generates significant religious fervor and a close relationship with the Divine, comparable to the engagement with the other spiritual entities. However, these four fundamental beliefs alone do not fully explain the organization of the traditional religious system. How the traditional religious system is structured around these four components is a crucial area of inquiry.

A foundational theological framework derived from these four beliefs is summarized by Steyne (1990): “… the world is essentially spiritual and the material and the spiritual are totally integrated. Man needs power from outside himself to control his environment. Life’s purpose is to seek and maintain the balance and harmony that result in success, happiness and security. To do this man must deal with the spirit powers correctly. Thus by rites, rituals and liturgies, he must impress and manipulate spirit beings to produce success, happiness and security.”

Hierarchy of Spiritual Beings

African traditional religious thought often conceives of all spiritual beings in a hierarchical order. The Supreme Being occupies the highest and most exalted position. Lesser beings, such as divinities, hold a subordinate yet elevated status above humans. The authority, power, influence, and legitimacy of spirit beings are understood to be directly related to their position within this ontological order. By virtue of their roles and positions, these spirit beings (1) dispense and control the activities of spiritual and mystical powers and forces, and (2) influence the morality and ethics of human societies.

Traditional Africans respond to these spirit beings according to their perceived place in this hierarchy, their power, influence, and designated role. Religious values, activities, practices, morality, and ethics are accorded to each spirit being in proportion to their authority, power, influence, territorial domain, and legitimacy. Thus, within the traditional religious worldview, spirit beings are graded, a concept that has significant implications for the traditional understanding of morality and ethics (Ikenga-Metuh, 1989).

This theological concept profoundly influences how traditional Africans define the roles and functions of the Supreme Being, lesser beings, divinities, and ancestors within their communities.